Demilitarisation and Peacebuilding in Southern Africa:
A Survey of the Literature
by Guy Lamb
September 1997
Guy Lamb, B.SocSc(Hons) M.SocSci (University of Cape Town) is a researcher on the Project on Peace and Security at the Centre for Conflict Resolution, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
The recent demise of the era of superpower rivalry has created a paradoxical situation. On the one hand the end of the Cold War has paved the way for unprecedented possibilities for peace nationally, regionally and internationally, while on the other hand provoked fresh occurrences of interstate and intrastate conflict. This situation has prompted academics and policy-makers to apply their intellect to facilitate the former and restrict the latter, and as a result a fundamental shift has taken place in the theory and practice of issues related to security, conflict and peace. From these scholarly endeavours the concept of peacebuilding emerged, which now pervades most debates on peace and security. In addition there has been renewed interest in the related phenomenon of demilitarisation. The current literature that has addressed these related phenomena encompasses a broad range of views, perspectives and subject matter. It is fairly substantial in volume, with certain areas being interdisciplinary in nature.
The purpose of this article is to survey this particular literature set with specific reference to the southern African region, to determine the current state of scholarly affairs, and possibly contribute to a general understanding of the dynamics of demilitarisation and peacebuilding. The survey has three focal points. First, it provides an assessment of the nature of the literature, as well as identifying the major areas of research and general trends in the field. Second it classifies the literature into the following categories: mechanisms for peace and security, case studies and policy recommendations. Finally, it determines the relative strengths and weaknesses of the literature, with the most notable observation being empirical wealth, but theoretical deficiency of the literature.
1. Introduction
The end of the cold war has heralded the dawning of a new era. It is a time in which a series of intense protracted conflicts in the southern African region have been terminated and peace agreements brokered. After years, and in some cases decades of war, there are now new possibilities for reconstruction, democratic consolidation and peace. This situation has brought about a shift in focus of the study and practice of issues related to security, conflict and peace. Most scholars have embraced this change wholeheartedly, and in so doing have applied their intellect to dealing with those obstacles which need to be overcome in the transition from war to peace. From the richness and diversity of these scholarly endeavours a new concept has emerged, that of peacebuilding. In general peacebuilding is an attempt to describe a set of actions that can positively contribute to the reconstruction of war-torn societies, minimise the occurrence of renewed outbreaks of violence and ultimately contribute to long term security needs and development of the society in question.
Accompanying the emergence of peacebuilding there has also been renewed interest in the related phenomenon of demilitarisation. In terms of the contemporary literature, demilitarisation not only advocates the reallocation of military resources for civilian purposes, but also seeks to challenge the social and cultural views that perceive violence as a legitimate solution to conflict and an effective means of obtaining and defending power. The current literature that has addressed demilitarisation and peacebuilding with respect to the southern African region encompasses a broad range of views, perspectives, and subject matter. It is fairly substantial in volume, with certain segments being interdisciplinary in nature. The purpose of this paper is to survey this particular literature in an attempt to determine the current state of scholarly affairs and possibly contribute to a general understanding of the dynamics of demilitarisation and peacebuilding.
This literature review has three objectives: First, to critically survey the body of literature concerning the interrelated field of demilitarisation and peacebuilding in southern Africa. Second, to identify the major areas of research and general trends in the field. Third, to determine the relative strengths and weaknesses of the literature.
2. Demilitarisation and Peacebuilding Defined
On assessing the literature and research on demilitarisation and peacebuilding one critical matter becomes acutely clear: the lack of consensus concerning definitions of peacebuilding and demilitarisation, and how these phenomena relate to each other. Certain studies are meticulous in defining terms of reference, while others make the assumption that the reader is aware of what these concepts entail. This absence of clarity has resulted in some analytical confusion, and as a result the distinction between these two terms has become blurred. Therefore, at the onset of this literature review, demilitarisation and peacebuilding will be defined, and the relationship between them addressed.
Although very much in the experimental phase, the validity of peacebuilding has received wide recognition over the past five years; however, conceptually it remains as imprecise as ever. In fact, it has become a "catchall" concept that covers a broad range of rather vague theories about security, development and conflict resolution. More recently, the term has been broadened to include efforts to prevent the outbreak of potential conflict, such as early response programmes.3
Prior to World War II demilitarisation would usually come into effect following the termination of an inter-state war, where the loser would be forced to accept a reduction in: armed forces, arms production and weapons imports. Demilitarised zones (areas free of military occupation and influence) would be created to act as a buffer between the two states in the event of future conflict. This was the case with Germany following the formulation of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). However, in certain instances, demilitarised zones were just established for pure security reasons.5 During the Cold War the notion of demilitarisation became a preserve of Peace Studies scholars in which the concept was widened to include, apart from a reduction in the military potential of states, a decrease in the role military institutions played in both national and international affairs.
Since the end of the Cold War interest in the concept of demilitarisation has been revived with it being interpreted from social and cultural perspectives as well. This has resulted in demilitarisation being actively debated and contested in academic circles. Demilitarisation is currently seen to include some or all of the following components: civilian control over the armed forces, demobilisation of combatants, disarmament, cuts in military spending, conversion of arms industries and the eroding of the ideology which views violence as a legitimate solution to conflict and an effective means for obtaining and defending power.6
Even though peacebuilding and demilitarisation are distinct concepts in their own right, they are however, interrelated, as they are both concerned with similar issues. In terms of the literature survey, these terms are mutually beneficial: Demilitarisation acts to limit peacebuilding's broad scope, while as demilitarisation is a contested concept it needs to be linked to a higher concept, such as peace, in order to reduce the conceptual confusion.
3. Nature of the Literature
The current literature on demilitarisation in Southern Africa has its origins in the 1980s with the publication of articles and books related to war resistance and conscientious objection in South Africa. The most notable are, War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa (David Philip, 1989) edited by Jacklyn Cock and Laurie Nathan.7 However, despite these earlier beginnings, the research, especially with respect to peacebuilding, is largely the product of the 1990s. The nature of literature is varied; it encompasses a diverse approaches and perspectives on the numerous aspects of demilitarisation and peacebuilding. The dominant themes of the southern African literature include: regional security and confidence building measures, issues relating to demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants, processes of military review and the reconstruction of armed forces, peacekeeping, disarmament and arms control, and civil-military relations.
The current research and literature are derived from four sources: First, international organisations, such as the World Bank, United Nations, and donor agencies. These organisations, inspired by requests from several countries to provide technical assistance and financing for demobilisation and reintegration efforts, have embarked on, or commissioned research in the areas of demilitarisation and peacebuilding. Second, research has been conducted by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with a specific interest in the area of peace and security. The Bonn International Centre for Conversion (BICC), Institute for Defence Policy (IDP), Group for Environmental Monitoring (GEM), and the Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR), are a few of the multitude of NGOs concerned about demilitarisation and peacebuilding. A third source of information has been the publications following conferences and seminars, such as the "Confidence-and Security-building Measures in Southern Africa" which was published by the United Nations as part of its Disarmament Topical Papers series. Finally, a considerable amount of private academic research has been undertaken. This research (both published and unpublished) has taken various forms, such as: journal articles, conference papers, chapters or sections of books, information booklets, project reports, and other academic publications.
4. Categorising the Literature and Research
Determining or categorising the relevant research and literature of a field in the social sciences, especially one, which is interdisciplinary in nature, is both complex and problematic. Often, there is the dilemma of to where to draw the line, and whether to adopt broad or narrow categories. Given its recent popularity, and consequently, the relative unsophisticated nature, the literature on demilitarisation and peacebuilding will be classified into three broad categories: 1) mechanisms for peace and security, 2) case studies, and 3) policy recommendations. However, as the nature of the research is diverse certain works can be classified under more than one category.
4.1 Mechanisms for Peace and Security
Only a very small proportion of the total literature deals specifically with the general conceptual and theoretical issues surrounding demilitarisation and peacebuilding. The vast majority of research seems have focused almost entirely on those means or mechanisms for achieving and maintaining peace and security.
Scholars with an interest in the southern African region embraced this "new security paradigm" enthusiastically, with a plethora of articles being published on the conceptualisation of southern African security, as well as the feasibility and need for regional security arrangements.10 While there seems to be consensus between academics and officials that future security in Africa lies with the adoption of the principles behind the new security concept and the idea of "collective security", there has been disagreement over the appropriate institutional agreement needed to implement it.
Probably one of the most influential documents is Ken Booth's A Security Regime in Southern Africa: Theoretical Considerations (CSAS, 1994), as it motivated certain scholars to undertake research using Booth's theoretical framework as a guide. Jacklyn Cock produced a discussion document for GEM titled "Redefining security: The Military and the Ecology of Southern Africa" (March 1995).11 It identified seven ways in which military resources in the region could be converted to sustainable development generally and environmental protection specifically. In May 1996, Hussein Solomon and Jakkie Cilliers edited a paper, "People, Poverty and Peace: Human Security in Southern Africa".12 In line with Booth's framework, this publication argued that states in the region need to organise security policies co-operatively to deal with the destabilising phenomenon of population movements, and the associated problems that accompany them.
In terms of the literature, most authors agree that demobilisation and reintegration are volatile issues. If they are not effectively managed, then those former soldiers may once again take up arms with the result being the scuttling of the entire peace process. However, if the process of demobilisation is expertly handled, they can create opportunities for sustainable peace and human development.24 Given the critical nature of demobilisation and reintegration, especially in the southern African region, it is understandable that a large volume of literature has accumulated. However, the majority of this literature is confined to case study analysis.
In terms of the more recent literature on civil-military relations, demilitarisation and peacebuilding, the focal points seem to be: civilian control (political, financial and functional) of the military, the "depolitisation" of the military, and the creation of a small, professional military forces. These issues are discussed with respect to the formation of "new" armed forces, defence review processes, and the formation and consolidation of democracy. More specific policy areas include: the separation of the military and civilian powers, legality, accountability, transparency and the government's responsibility towards the armed services.25
This category includes case studies that deal specifically with the issues of demilitarisation and peacebuilding in particular countries. This research embodies either the single case study approach or comparative analysis. It has been inspired by the lack of detailed published research on peacebuilding and demilitarisation programmes in the southern African context. In general, these studies highlight the risks involved, and the lessons to be learnt from certain programmes, whereas a much smaller number of these case studies attempt to propose tentative policy options for future peacebuilding projects. The research has tended to focus on demobilisation and reintegration, disarmament, peacekeeping, and civil-military relations. The following countries in the southern African region have been subject to case study analysis: Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Angola.
The case studies in question differ remarkably in length, analysis and insight. For instance, Simon Shikangalah's "The Development Brigade: the Namibian Experience"26 is approximately a thousand words in length, while the World Bank study by Colletta, Koster and Wiederhofer, Case Studies in War-to-Peace Transition: The Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda27, is some three hundred and fifty pages. Some of the research provides in-depth analysis, critical insight, and detailed policy recommendations, while other studies do not to move beyond mere description of the problems.
In 1993 and 1994 two fairly substantial compilations of case studies on demilitarisation and peacebuilding were published. First was "Towards Sustainable Peace and Stability in Southern Africa" which incorporated papers delivered at a Conference in Harare.28 This publication was an attempt to depart from the vague analysis of the problem of peacebuilding. It included case studies on Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, and Lesotho, where issues of demobilisation and reintegration, gender, the restructuring of armed forces, economic development, and regional security were considered. Even though many of the issues that were being researched were "virgin" territory, the outputs were of limited analytical quality with only vague policy recommendations being presented, and no attempt was made to collate the research into general guidelines or propositions. Second, was Demobilisation and Reintegration of Military Personnel in Africa: the Evidence from Seven Country Case Studies.29 This study sought to fill the information gap on the practical issues arising in the implementation of demobilisation and reintegration programmes in the transition from war to peace. The study examined the current projects, costs involved, management issues, and context of each stage of the initial shift from combatant to civilian life (encampment, disarmament, demobilisation, transportation). It also provided information on the programmes that aimed to facilitate longer-term reintegration, as well as results of certain programmes, and lessons learnt in Angola, Chad, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Nicaragua and Uganda. At the time this publication was the most comprehensive study on demobilisation and reintegration.
In 1995 and 1996 further case study compilations were produced. These included the IDP publication, Dismissed: Demobilisation and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa, edited by Jakkie Cilliers30; and Colletta, Kostner and Wiederhofers' World Bank discussion paper: Case Studies in War-to-Peace Transition: The Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda.31 According to Cilliers the aim of Dismissed is to inform academics, leaders and persons involved in demobilisation about the challenges and complexities of such a programme, and lessons that can be learnt from situations elsewhere in Africa. This book is a good overview of the demobilisation and reintegration process in the African context, and it contains further articles on Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique. However, it does not contribute any original insights or perspectives to the analysis and debate about demobilisation and reintegration. The World Bank study reinforces the research of the 1993 version. Even though its focus is limited to three cases: Ethiopia, Namibia and Uganda; it is a highly comprehensive document that attempts to provide fairly detailed guidelines on how to successfully implement peacebuilding programmes.
In terms of the single case study material, the research tends to centre around particular themes for particular countries, which are largely derived from the countries' historical legacy and experience with regards to the peace settlement and post-conflict peacebuilding. In the case of Angola, the Bicesse Accords (1992) were a complete failure, as both UNITA and the MPLA government resumed hostilities only a few months after the peace agreement had been signed. Consequently, most of the research has focused on the reasons for the return to civil war, that is: the general shortcomings of the UN Angola Verification Missions; and the inadequate disarmament, peacekeeping and demobilisation efforts.32
In terms of the Mozambican research, following the successful peace agreement (Rome Accord, 1992) and United Nations Intervention (ONUMOZ), the research has focused on the peace process itself and post-conflict peacebuilding. Elements such as the demobilisation and social reintegration of ex-combatants, UN humanitarian assistance, economic restructuring and development, and the establishment of democratic armed forces.33 At the moment, the critical obstacle to long term peace is the economic liberalisation programmes imposed by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which have exacerbated problems of poverty, crime and corruption in Mozambique.34
Following the euphoria of Namibia's elections and South West African Peoples' Organisation's (SWAPO) first year in office, the research on the post-independence period, and more specifically peacebuilding and demilitarisation has been rather thin, with only a handful of books and journal articles being published. The majority of this work has tended to focus on the peace settlement, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants, the restructuring of the Namibian armed forces, SWAPO's political and economic policies and Namibia's economic prospects for the future.35
The literature on Zimbabwe is just as underdeveloped as the Namibian research, which is disappointing given the high standard of research concerning Zimbabwe's struggle for independence.36 The current literature is largely concerned with describing, assessing Zimbabwe's demobilisation, reintegration and disarmament programmes.37
The case study research on South Africa is fairly extensive, covering a vast array of issues relating to demilitarisation and peacebuilding. In the past five years there have been a plethora of articles and books produced on the various subject areas. The focus of this research seems to be on security issues, civil-military relations, the restructuring of the South African armed forces and police, and conflict resolution. In terms of defence and related issues, many articles have appeared in the journal, African Security Review published by the Institute for Security Studies (formally Institute for Defence Policy).38 The ISS also published About Turn: The Transformation of the South African Military and Intelligence (1995), edited by Jakkie Cilliers and Markus Reichardt. It describes the nature of the military actors and security agreements that facilitated the South African transition. Similar ground is covered in the concluding chapters of Annette Seegers' The Military and the Making of Modern South Africa (London: Tauris, 1996), which provides a more in depth analysis of the problem.
Fairly substantial research has been conducted on civil-military relations and more specifically, the transformation of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) from a powerful military machine into a much more modest, economical and representative force accountable to the people. this research has taken the form of conceptualisation, policy proposals, and descriptive analyses. This research is generally of good quality.39 As much of the research is policy orientated, it will therefore be discussed in section 3.
4.3 Policy Recommendations
The material included in this category comprises policy proposals and recommendations. It ranges from policy suggestions for demilitarisation and peacebuilding in general, to issue specific documents for the benefit of a particular country. The majority of the policy proposals have been produced exclusively for South Africa.
In terms of the issue specific literature the available material is creative and diverse. For instance, with respect to Mozambique, Nemuire 40 proposes that demobilisation and peacebuilding efforts should be more participative. The various schemes should allow the former soldiers to participate in their design and implementation, and subsequently, treat demobilised persons as subjects, not as objects. Jacklyn Cock advocates a "Soldiers' Charter", similar to that which was successfully implemented in South Africa after World War II, an acknowledgement by the state of its responsibilities towards ex-soldiers.41 Mark Malan contends that focus on peacebuilding in South Africa should be expanded to include remobilization, as it poses a potentially greater security risk than demobilisation.42 Penny cKenzie makes proposals for the conversion of military land in South Africa for development purposes.43
The policy recommendations for South African demilitarisation and peacebuilding are fairly abundant. The various issues are usually raised in the literature concerning the transformation of the South African military establishment. One of the most important document is, Defence in a Democracy: White Paper on National Defence for the Republic of South Africa, (1996) edited by Joe Modise, and drafted by Laurie Nathan.44 In addition, Nathan has argued that the Defence White Paper can be described as a mechanism for state demilitarisation, as this policy paper "marks a fundamental break with the aggressive and repressive strategies of the National Party government over several decades." It also moves toward downsizing and rationalising the South African Defence establishment. However, exceptions do exist in certain areas, especially that of arms exports.45 Gavin Cawthra, Jakkie Cilliers, Rocky Williams, Peter Batchelor, and Greg Mills have also made significant policy proposals with respect to demilitarisation and peacebuilding in South Africa.
With respect to the body of literature concerning general policy advice for demilitarisation and peacebuilding in southern Africa, two publications have their heads' above the rest. First there is Mats Berdal's "Disarmament and Demobilisation after Civil Wars" (Adelphi Paper 303,1996), which claims that demobilisation and peacebuilding cannot be treated simply as a set of managerial or administrative challenges. They are a set of distinct activities that require advance planning and require outside assistance. They are all political processes whose long term and sustainable impact depend on parallel efforts of political and economic reconstruction to resolve the root cause of conflict.
Second, there is Colletta, Kostner and Wiederhofers', The Transition from War to Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa, which is a rejoinder to their case study analysis.46 This book, drawing from the comparative research of Namibia, Uganda, and Ethiopia, provides an in depth analysis of various policy recommendations for all aspects of peacebuilding, from designing successful demobilisation and reintegration programmes to assessing the "peace dividend". All in all it provides fairly sound, practical policy advice.
5. Strengths, Weaknesses of the Literature
The various aspects of the current research has both its strengths and weaknesses. Despite the conceptual confusion surrounding the definitions of peacebuilding and demilitarisation as well as the relationship between the two phenomena, the studies in general provide competent descriptive analyses of the problems to be addressed. The case study research in general has been fairly meticulous in terms of investigation and data capturing, and has aptly identified the risks and challenges involved in demilitarisation and peacebuilding, as well as providing insightful policy recommendations.
However, despite this state of affairs, a significant portion of the research has generated policy proposals that are broad, vague, and South African-centred. In addition to this, these recommendations lack the requisite detail for implementing policies, especially in situations where resources are scarce. They also tend to focus almost exclusively on the short and medium term. The long term process that of building sustainable peace and development is acknowledged, but largely disregarded.
The fundamental deficiency of the literature on peacebuilding and demilitarisation is the lack of theoretical outlook. This is represented by the failure of scholars to move beyond mere analytical description, with only marginal attempts to formulate propositions, hypotheses and generalisations having been made. A manifestation of this problem is the ad hoc approach to demilitarisation and peacebuilding in the literature. What in fact is required is a coherent and theoretically driven approach that addresses the interrelated phenomena of peacebuilding and demilitarisation in a systematic and co-ordinated fashion, and is not limited to one particular country or peacebuilding mechanism.
This state of affairs is due to two factors. First, there is only a relatively small group of individuals interested in issues relating to demilitarisation and peacebuilding in the southern African region. This group is made up of academics, policy makers and "concerned citizens", whose interests are not exclusively devoted to the issues in question. Second, the general "field" of demilitarisation and peacebuilding is in the infant stages, substantial research and analysis is still required for it to become a officially recognised academic field.
Consequently, the state of the literature on demilitarisation and peacebuilding is not as enigmatic as it seems at first glance. However, significant progress in terms of quality research is required if it is going to meet the complex challenges of a post-Cold War era, and develop into a field of research in its own right.
Notes
2.
A/47/277 S/24111 pp. 15-16.
3.
Parliamentary Centre for the Peacebuilding Roundtable 1995. Taking Stock: A Survey of Canadian Thinking and Actvities on Peacebuilding, Ottawa: Parliamentary Centre.
4.
Berghahm, V.R. 1981. Militarism: The History of the International Debate 1867-1979, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5.
For instance, on 26 October 1905, Sweden and Norway established on both sides of their common border a permanently neutral zones, free of military influence and hardware.
6.
Cock, J. 1996. "The Cultural and Social Challenge of Demilitarization", NOD & Conversion, No. 37.
7.
See Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR) 1989. Out of Step: War Resistance in South Africa, London: CIIR; Cawthra, G. et al, (eds.), 1994. War and Resistance: Southern African Reports Basingstoke: MacMillan; CIIR, 1988. Country and Conscience: South Africa's Conscientious Objectors, London: Pax Christi; Centre for Intergroup Studies, 1989. Conscientious Objection, Occasional Paper No. 8. 2nd ed., Rondebosch: CIS; Seegers, A. 1990.Conscientious Objection and the Military in South Africa, in Moskos, C.C. & J.W. Chambers II (eds.), The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance New York: Oxford University Press; Collins, B.F., A History of the Committee on South African War Resistance (COSAWR) 1978-90 (unpublished MA thesis, 1995); Lamb, G., Confronting the Military (unpublished honours thesis, 1996).
8.
See Buzan, B. 1983. People, States and Fear, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina; Mathews, J.C. "Redefining Security", Foreign Affairs, Vol. 68.
9.
K. Booth, 1994. A Security Regime in Southern Africa: Theoretical Considerations, CSAS, Southern African Perspectives No. 30, University of the Western Cape: CSAS.
10.
See Mills, G. & Clapham, C. 1991. "Southern African Security After Apartheid: A Framework for Analysis", CSAS, Southern African Perspectives No. 8, University of the Western Cape: CSAS; Nathan, L. 1991. "Towards a Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Co-operation in Africa", Southern African Perspectives No. 13, University of the Western Cape: CSAS; Nathan, L. & Honwana, J. 1995. "After the Storm: Common Security and Conflict Resolution in Southern Africa", The Arusha Papers; Mills, G. 1995. "South Africa and Africa: Regional Integration and Security Co-operation", African Security Review, Vol. 4 (2); Southhall, R. 1995. "Regional Security: The 'New Security' in Southern Africa", Southern Africa Report, July; Booth, K. & Vale, P. 1995. "Southern African Security: After Apartheid, Beyond Realism", International Affairs, Vol. 71 (2); Du Pisani, A. 1992. "Security and Peace in Post-Apartheid Southern Africa", International Affairs Bulletin; Rugumanu, 1993. S. Post-Cold War Peace and Security Prospects in Southern Africa, Sapes Books, Harare; Nolutshungu, S.C. 1994. Southern Africa in a Global Context: Towards a Southern African Security Community, Sapes Books, Harare.
11.
This paper is part of GEMs broader project on Conversion and Conservation.
12.
IDP Monograph Series, No. 4.
13.
Ohlson, T. & Steadman, S.J. 1994. The New is Not Yet Born: Conflict Resolution in Southern Africa, Washington, D.C.:Brookings Institution; Fortna, V.P. 1995. "Success and Failure in Southern Africa: Peacekeeping in Namibia and Angola", in Daniel, D.C.F. & Hayes, B.C. Beyond Traditional Peacekeeping, New York: St Martin's Press.
14.
See Malan, M. (ed), 1996. "New Partners in Peace: Towards a Southern African Peacekeeping Capacity" IDP Monograph Series No. 5; Malan, M. 1996. "Foundations for Regional Security: Preparing to keep the Peace in Southern Africa" African Security Review Vol. 5 (1).
15.
One of the most useful reference manuals with respect to data and international agreements and resolutions are the SIPRI Year Books (New York: Oxford University Press).
16.
See Smith, C. 1996. "Light Weapons and the International Arms Trade", Small Arms Management and Peacekeeping in Southern Africa, Disarmament and Conflict Resolution Project, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Geneva; Cock, J. 1996. "The Cultural and Social Challenge of Demilitarization", NOD & Conversion No. 37, July; Cock, J. 1995. "A Sociological Account of Light Weapons Proliferation in Southern Africa", in Singh, J. (ed.), Light Weapons and International Security, Indian Pugwash Society and British American Security Information Council; Batchelor, P. 1996. "Disarmament, Small Arms, and Intra-State Conflict: The Case of Southern Africa, Small Arms Management and Peacekeeping in Southern Africa, Disarmament and Conflict Resolution Project, Geneva; Gamba, V. 1996. "Disarmament and the Control of Light Weapons: Lessons from UN Peace Missions and Small Arms Proliferation in Southern Africa", IDP Monograph Series No. 5.
17.
"Disarmament and Demobilisation after Civil War", Adelphi Paper 303.
18.
Renner, M. 1992. Economic Adjustment After the Cold War: Strategies for Conversion, Aldershot: Dartmouth.
19.
Batchelor, P. 1996. Militarism, Disarmament and Defence Industrial Adjustment: The Case of South Africa, unpublished PhD Thesis, Jesus College: Cambridge.
20.
BICC, 1996. Conversion Survey 1996: Global Disarmament, Demilitarization and Demobilization, New York: Oxford University Press.
21.
See Chan, S. 1995. "Grasping the Peace Dividend: Some Propositions on the Conversion of Swords into Plowshares", Mershon International Studies Review, vol. 39 (1);
22.
Cilliers, J. 1995. Dismissed: Demobilisation and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa, Halfway House: IDP, p. 5.
24.
See BICC, Conversion Survey 1996; Kingma, K. 1997. "The Role of Demobilisation in the Peace and Development Process in Sub-Saharan Africa: Conditions for Success", African Security Review vol. 6 (1); Berdal, M. 1996. "Disarmament and Demobilisation after Civil War" Adelphi Paper 303, 1996.
25.
Nathan, L. .The Changing of the Guard: Armed Forces and Defence Policy in a Democratic South Africa, Pretoria: Himage src.
26.
in Cilliers, J. (ed.), 1995. Dismissed: Demobilisation and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa, Halfway House: IDP, pp. 70-72.
27.
World Bank Discussion Paper No. 331, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996.
28.
This publication was part of the Southern African Peacekeeping & Peacemaking Project, directed by Ambassador Joseph N. Garba, Institute of International Education, 1994.
29.
This was part of the Africa Regional Series commissioned by the World Bank (October 1993).
32.
V. Fortna, 1993. "United Nations Angola Verification Mission II", in W. Durch (ed.), The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, New York: St Martin's Press; V. Brittain, 1992. "Angola: The Final Act?", Southern Africa Report, vol. 7; Human Rights Watch, 1994. Angola: Arms Trade and Violations of the Laws of War Since the 1992 Elections, New York: Human Rights Watch; Human Rights Watch Arms Project, 1996. Angola: Between War and Peace - Arms Trade and Human Rights Abuses since the Lusaka Protocol, Washington, D.C.: Human Rights Watch.
33.
Hume, C. 1994. Ending Mozambique's War: The Role of Mediation and Good Offices Washington, D.C.:United States Institute of Peace Press; Berman, E. 1996. "Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Mozambique", Disarmament and Conflict Resolution Project, Geneva: UNIDIR; Honwana, J.B. 1996. "The United Nations and Mozambique: A Sustainable Peace?", Cadernos do Lumiar 7, Lisbon: IEEI; United Nations, 1995. The United Nations and Mozambique 1992-1995 New York, UN Department of Public Information; Honwana, J.B., "Establishing Democratic Defence Forces in Mozambique: A Case Study", in Spanger, H-J. & Vale, P. (eds), 1995. Bridges to the Future: Prospects for Peace and Security in Southern Africa, Boulder: Westview Press.
34.
Hanlon, J. 1996. Peace Without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique, African Issues, Oxford: James Currey; Willett, S. 1995. "Ostriches, Wise Old Elephants and Economic Reconstruction in Mozambique", International Peacekeeping vol. 2 (1).
35.
See Dobell, L. 1995. "SWAPO in Office", in Leys, C. and Saul J. (eds), Namibia's Liberation Struggle:The Two-Edged Sword, London: James Currey, pp. 171-196.; A. du Pisani, 1991. "Rumours of Rain: Namibia's Post Independence Experience", Southern African Issues No. 3; A. du Pisani, 1994. "Namibia Impressions of Independence", in P.B. Rich, The Dynamics of Change in Southern Africa, Basingstoke: MacMillan; Weiland, H. et al (eds.), 1994. The Namibian Peace Process: Implications and Lessons for the Future, Freiberg: ABI; Preston, R. 1994. Demobilising and Integrating Fighters After War: The Namibian Experience, Coventry: University of Warwick; Nathan, L. 1991. "Marching to a Different Drum: A Description and Assessment of the Formation of the Namibian Police and Defence Force, Southern African Perspectives No. 4.
36.
See Martin, S. & Johnson, S. 1981 The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War Johannesburg: Raven Press; Lan, D.L. 1985 Guns and Rain: Guerrillas & Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House; Ranger, T.O. Peasant Consciousness and Guerrilla War in Zimbabwe (London: James Currey, 1985).
37.
Ginfer, J. 1995. Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, New York: United Nations; Mutambirwa, S. 1995. "The Ambiguities of Democracy: The Demobilisation of Disabled Ex-combatants. The Zimbabwean Experience", in Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Disabled Ex-Combatants, Geneva: International Labour Office; Nyambuya, M. 1996. "National Defence: The Experience of the Zimbabwe Defence Force", African Security Review Vol. 5 (3); Rupiah, M. 1995. "Demobilisation and Integration: The Zimbabwe National Defence Forces, 1980-1987", African Security Review Vol. 4 (3).
38.
See Williams, R. 1995. "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Morality and the Development of a Professional Military Ethic", Vol. 4 (3); Heinecken, L. & Merts, C. 1995. "Creating a New Navy, Standards, Training and SAS Saldana", Vol. 4 (3); Shaw, M. 1995. "Towards Safer Cities?: Political Transition and Changing Forms of Policing Control in South Africa", Vol. 4 (5); Otto, R. 1995. "Preparing the Army for the Next Century", Vol. 4 (6); Habib, A. 1996. "Myth of the Rainbow Nation: Prospects for Consolidation of Democracy in South Africa" Vol. 5 (6).
39.
See Nathan, L. 1996. The Changing of the Guard: Armed Forces and Defence Policy in a Democratic South Africa, Pretoria: Himage src; Harker, J. (ed.), 1997. "Collaborative Security in South Africa", Aurora Papers 28; Gutteridge, W. (ed.), 1996. South Africa's Defence and Security into the 21st Century, Aldershot: Dartmouth.
40.
1995. "Demobilised Soldiers in Mozambique", Demobilised Soldiers Speak: Reintegration and Reconciliation in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Mozambique, Managua: Centro de Estudios Internacionales.
41.
Cock, J. 1993. "The Social Integration of Demobilised Soldiers in Contemporary South Africa", South African Defence Review, Issue No.
42.
1996. "Peace-Building in Post-Conflict South Africa: The Need for a Comprehensive Demobilisation and Remobilisation Programme", African Security Review, Vol. 5 (4).
43.
1996. Reclaiming the Land: From Defence to Development, Johannesburg: GEM.
44.
Many of the policy recommendations that Mr Nathan makes in Changing of the Guard are incorporated into the Defence White Paper.
45.
February 1997.The Defence White Paper of 1996: An Agenda for State Demilitarisation? Unpublished manuscript.
46.
1996. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
6. Bibliography
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Abstract
The conceptualisation of the term peacebuilding is a relatively recent phenomenon, with it being officially defined by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the Secretary-General of the United Nations at the time, in An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (1992). Boutros Ghali defined peacebuilding as "[post-conflict] action to identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify a peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict."1 Boutros Ghali stressed; that in order for peacebuilding to be successful, comprehensive efforts to identify and support structures, which will consolidate peace, advance a sense of confidence and well being and sustain economic reconstruction should be pursued. This may require both military and civilian involvement.2 The number of activities or mechanisms is virtually infinite. These mechanisms amongst others, include: disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants, monitoring of elections, the protection of human rights, reforming or strengthening government capacity, economic and social reform and reconciliation.
The concept of demilitarisation has fairly deep historical roots. Its origins are in the 1860s that were derived from conceptual debates over "militarism" in Western Europe. At this stage the term "demilitarisation" had not been formulated yet, nevertheless much of the debate centred around, when and under what circumstances militarism could be seen to exist, but also when and under what circumstances it would disappear. 4
4.2 Case Studies
The late 1980s and early 1990s were marked by profound changes in the political landscape both globally, in the southern African region and on a national basis in South Africa. The common denominator of the past experiences with security policies was characterised by the fact that global, regional and national policies were performed in very hostile environments, marked by suspicion and fear based largely on ideological differences. With the conclusion of the Cold War, the termination of the majority of national conflicts in the Region, and the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa, a new notion of security was essential. Drawing directly from research in Europe and the United States, which equated security with development8, a "new security paradigm" was formulated that undertook to move beyond the conventional definition that perceived security, to be virtually synonymous with defence, to a more inclusive understanding that took into account the political, economic, societal and environmental dimensions as well. Such a framework envisaged human security as ultimately more important than state security.9
Related to (regional) security, is the issue of peacekeeping. In terms of the literature on this subject there are two areas of focus. First, historical analyses and assessments of the successes and failures of various United Nations peacekeeping initiatives and operations in the southern African region (e.g. UNTAG, ONUMOZ, UNAVEM).13 The second focus concerns the issue of building capacity through an effective southern African peacekeeping partnership among member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).14 Most of this literature is case study analysis, and will therefore be discussed in section 2.
A number of scholars and peace activists have addressed the issue of disarmament (reducing or abolishing weapons) and arms control (skilful management of weapons). In essence these measures aim to eradicate or permanently remove the tools of violence, namely weapons. General consensus is that the lack of disarmament has the potential to destabilise the entire southern African region, due to the uncontrolled and unaccounted for mass movement of weapons that are no longer of political or military value to the former warring parties.15 Consequently, this area of research has largely focused on the problem of light weapons proliferation and the possible means to contain it.16 Many researchers interested in disarmament contend that the control and reduction of weapons can be an effective tool for ensuring stability and establishing peace. In terms of peacebuilding, disarmament and weapons control is a preliminary step towards demobilising and reintegrating ex-combatants and amalgamating opposing armies. Critically, Mads Berdal (1996) contends that disarmament, like demobilisation and reintegration, is an intensely political process, whose long-term and sustainable impact depends on parallel efforts of political and economic reconstruction to resolve the root causes of conflict.17
A concern that is closely related to disarmament, and is quite often included with the subject in terms of research, is that of conversion. Quiet simply, conversion is seen as "the transfer of resources and the reorientation of productive capabilities from military use to civilian purposes.18 Most of the current conversion literature tends to emphasise the technological dimensions of conversion, and addresses the costs and benefits associated with converting defence industries to civilian purposes. A smaller section of the literature adopts a broader approach to conversion, focusing on the macroeconomic aspects of reallocating resources from the military to the civilian sector.19 The most insightful current text on this subject is BICC's Conversion Survey 1996, which presents the facts and existing policies concerning global disarmament and conversion.20 As South Africa is the only country in the southern African region with a significant arms industry, it is understandable that the majority of research has focused on South Africa. However, to date, research concerning conversion in the Region remains underdeveloped.
What is quiet often categorised under the banner of disarmament and conversion are analyses and assessments of economic development and the so-called "peace dividend", phenomena which have materialised as a result of resolution of many of the conflicts in southern Africa, and the consequent civilian reorientation of national economies. The research in this field, especially with respect to economic development is fairly diverse, with the general consensus being that in certain countries economic growth has occurred since 1990, however, in reality the "peace dividend" has been negligible, or non-existent. 21
One of the most popular themes in the current literature on demilitarisation and peacebuilding are the interrelated phenomena of demobilisation and reintegration. Demobilisation is "the process through which armed forces of a government and opposition parties shed themselves of excess personnel after a period of conflict. Typically, demobilisation programmes include the provision of some short term social reintegration assistance."22 Thus, demobilisation involves the assembly, disarmament, administration and then the discharge of former combatants, with a compensation package and/or assistance programme in place. The distinction between where demobilisation ends and social reintegration begins differs from country to country which tends to lead to a degree of confusion. 23
Finally, there has been specific research with respect to mechanisms of civil-military relations that can contribute to demilitarisation and peacebuilding. By in large, civil-military relations is an interdisciplinary (dominated by the sociology and political studies), scholarly approach to the study of war and the military, that centres on the interaction between the military and civil society. Its roots can be traced to the period during World War II, when the United States government used scholars to study aspects of the American war effort.
Deger, S. & Smith, R. "Military Expenditures and Growth in Less Developed Countries", Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 30;
Adeola, F.O. 1996. "Military Expenditures, Health and Education: Bedfellows or Antagonists in Third World Development?" Armed Forces and Society vol. 23 (2); Abedian, I. & B. Standish (eds.), 1992. Economic Growth in South Africa, Cape Town: Oxford University Press;
Schrire, R. (ed), 1992. Wealth or Poverty? Critical Choices for South Africa, Cape Town: Oxford University Press;
Sparks, D. 1993. "The Peace Dividend: South Africa after Apartheid", Indicator SA, Vol. 10 (2); Spence, J. (ed.),1994. Change in South Africa, London: Pinter.
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